by Nassisse Solomon
Ethiopia has recently resurfaced in international headlines, in light of yet another looming apocalyptic scale famine. It is being widely reported that Ethiopia is facing its worst drought in 50 years. [1] A result of three failed rainy seasons, coupled with an El Nino effect warming the Pacific Ocean and affecting global weather patterns.[2] Changes in weather patterns that have resulted in punishing heat waves and drought throughout the horn of Africa region, and in Ethiopia becoming one of the worst afflicted countries.[3] With just weeks remaining before the start of the main cropping season in the country, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is calling for urgent funding to assist farmers in sowing their fields to abate drought stricken areas from falling deeper into hunger and food insecurity.[4] With a future saddled by the “uncertainty of what nature has called down upon it”[5], Ethiopia, as CBC’s Margaret Evans among many others have characterized it, is once again “on the edge.”[6]
CBC The National-Ethiopia on the Edge.
Currently, Ethiopia has an estimated 10.2 million people in need of assistance throughout 2016, with another 5.75 million children at risk of going hungry.[7] It has also been reported that up to 2 million children are currently suffering from malnutrition, with 400,000 acute cases. [8] In the face of more staggering suffering and loss ahead, the proverbial alarm has been sounded, after what some are characterizing as “an avoidable delay.”[9] The numbers are once again staggering and overwhelming, leading many to proclaim that this is evidence of “history repeating itself”.
Historical Resonance
Haunting images from decades of civil war and famine during the past century, still constitute a large part of Western consciousness of the East African nation. The rhetoric being used to discuss the onslaught of drought and famine in Ethiopia today, has much historical symbolism and resonance, especially with Canadians. It is within living memory for many Canadians that one of the largest political and social mobilization efforts of humanitarian internationalism during the 20th century was in support of efforts to avert unprecedented scales of human suffering and death during the 1984-1986 period of famine in Ethiopia.
It was under the leadership of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and his Progressive Conservative party that David MacDonald came to don the title of “Canadian aid Coordinator for the African famine”.[10] In hindsight, this period of aid spearheaded by government action has been dubbed by some as the “sterling model of Brian Mulroney.”[11] Whereby immediately after viewing the televised images of starvation broadcast within Canada and throughout the world, the newly minted Prime Minister “called Canada’s UN ambassador, Stephen Lewis, and directed him to galvanize action in the world community.”[12] Joe Clarke, Mulroney’s Foreign Minister was also the first senior official from the West to visit Ethiopia. [13]
The federal conservative government’s call to action witnessed an unparalleled social mobilization of all scales in Canada. Whereby many concerned citizens rallied together to rise “to the challenge of the African drought and famine”. [14] With stories like “Artisans donate work to aid famine victims”, [15] and “Canucks pledge $1.5 M”, [16] the headlines of the press from this period are illustrative of the extent of the public’s engagement with the issue of famine in Ethiopia. Some even petitioning their provincial government into focusing on “community-to-community” actions between their home province and Africa, and bolstering the potential for “sustained individual personal involvement by both Canadians and Africans”.[17] The optimism and determination of this period in humanitarianism was clearly infectious, and far reaching. And David MacDonald, was entrusted with bringing to fruition the hopes of dreams of Canadians in his role, because Canadians pouring funds into the cause wanted nothing less than “visible results”. [18]
Yet, the permanent eradication of famine, the cause for which all of this outpouring of support was intended, continued to prevail. As it had in the past, and continues to do so in the present. By 1986, these same headlines were faintly screaming that “Famine in Africa is still real”. [19] In the 1970s and early 1980s, the calamities of drought, famine, war and displacement ravaged the continent. Highlighting the challenges of a continent plagued with political strife, instability and armed conflicts. It was declared then, that in the decade between 1970-1980, Africa had become “the hungriest continent, with the population expanding three times faster than food production”[20] Emergent issues of massive displacement during this latter period, are prevalent within the present. Culminating into what has been characterized time and time again as an “African tragedy”. [21]
Hence, underlying the current appeals for international aid are the latter historic experiences with endemic and cyclical bouts of drought and famine in the region. Even at the start of the new millennium, there was a drought in 2003 that compelled headlines of Ethiopians with “so little to eat”, leaving more than 11 million people vulnerable to starvation.[22] As recently as 2009, there was an international appeal by the Ethiopian government for emergency food aid for 6.2 million people.[23] However, within the Western psyche, the 1984-85 famine year remains to be the international benchmark for the epitome of Ethiopian, and by implicit extension “African suffering”. More importantly, in the minds of many, the 1984-85 campaign remains as the last lynchpin of hope in the concerted effort for the permanent eradication of famine.
Taking Stock: Thirty Years Later
Thus, many are asking how his could be happening again: “a little more than 30 years after a global humanitarian appeal that raised many millions of dollars and saw foreign NGOs rush in to establish famine relief efforts and a host of infrastructure projects designed to prevent such a disaster recurring.”[24] In light of this prevalent memory, many international headlines are asking about why thirty years later, “things” do not appear to have not changed much within the region. Hence, alongside alarm bells for the precipitation of immediate action by the rest of the world, there are accompanying questions being raised with regards to why this is happening again, especially in light of devastating famines in past decades.[25] It appears that in the afterglow of a concerted massive and successful international campaign, the world is still disheartened that it could not cure the ails of the region, simply by throwing relief and funds at it for a short duration of time.
Enshrouded in the memory of the unprecedented international response to the previous plight of the mid 1980s, what has been peripheral to the current discourse, is the fact that in the immediate aftermath of the epic 1984-86 famine period, frontline workers were already predicting that the relief efforts delivered during the period would not be enough to abate future catastrophes from occurring. Canadian Aid agencies had forewarned that even most pressing problems faced by the people of the drought-stricken zones of Africa were not going to be overcome by March 31, 1986, when the Mulroney government had instructed David MacDonald, Canadian emergency coordinator for African relief, to wind his office down. [26] By the tail end of the 1980s, in spite of the tremendous fund raising successes, the picture was still bleak. In December of 1987, The World Food Program was reporting that Ethiopia, Mozambique, Malawi, Angola, Somalia and the Sudan were in in of need 2.3 million tons of food in the coming year, totaling to approximately twice of what had been pledged by the donor countries in that time.[27]
During the month of May of 1988, Macdonald was still buoyantly agitating for change in Africa, in spite a month long ban on international aid workers that was crippling Canadian relief efforts from reaching the drought stricken northern parts of Ethiopia. [28] Increasingly, the Marxist regime of Mengestu Haile Mariam was under international fire for their willful use and abuse of famine and foreign aid as a means of warfare and ethnocide during the peak of the country’s decades long civil war. [29] From the start of the famine reporting in 1984, it had been clear that that Ethiopian government was hostile to foreign media and determined to engage in an ideological warfare to subvert the messages to the outside world. [30] Cognizance of this impervious past , undoubtedly colors representations of the current Ethiopian government today.
With members of the United Nations and Save The Children rallying to raise funds for Ethiopia since the start of the year, it has become clear that this time, the narrative is consciously
different. [31] It is with historic resonance that statements such as: “we do not see any reason why there has to be a repeat of a band- aid moment”[32] from Ethiopian politicians deliver a politically poignant message. Moreover, Ethiopia has been receiving much criticism for doing exactly “what many in the West complain that developing countries don’t do enough of: tackling the situation itself”. [33] However, the government has also been receiving some praise and recognition for “employing a sophisticated food security network developed over the decades since awful images of the 1984 famine came to stigmatize Ethiopia”.[34] Many are in agreement that Ethiopia was currently more prepared to deal with drought than in 1984, when hundreds of thousands of people perished from famine; but the reality is that “in some parts of the country, international help is still needed”[35]
Constructions of Famine: Ethiopian Government Under -Fire
Accusations of willful ignorance of famines on the part of the Ethiopian government did not die away with the ousting of the Marxist regime. Instead, similar criticisms of recent governments have also resurfaced during recent memory. In 2009, Alemayehu G.Mariam , professor of political science at California state wrote a damning article on how “the Ethiopian government through inaction, repression, and obsfuscation is a major cause of the developing Ethiopian famine.”[36] Originally published and circulated in the Huffington Post, Mariam’s critiques of the Ethiopian government of late do not mince words. Mariam characterized the Ethiopian state under Meles Zenawi as a “parched landscape”, with no semblance of democracy and or adequate means of preparation for any impending desperate circumstances. In fact, he foreshadows the inevitability of an epic famine on the horizon, through his ominous predictions that “images of human wreckage of Ethiopia’s rampaging famine will soon begin to make dramatic appearances on television in Western living rooms”. [37]
BBC World report on Ethiopia- http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35499487
Clearly, famines in Ethiopia have had a long and embattled political history, and will continue to do so. The degree to which any one governing body is held to be responsible for the emergent circumstances has been, and continues to be, a critical element to the construction of famine discourses surrounding Ethiopia. Thus, the centrality of the Ethiopian government in constructions of famine within the region also has strong historical antecedents. During the 1984 famine, there were widespread reports of the then ruling Marxist regime “Exploiting the famine”.[38] In particular, Berhanu Bayih, one of the country’s leading Marxist officials was reported to have “set a new standard of ingratitude by blaming Western donor countries for the level of starvation in his drought-afflicted country”.[39] In response to Bayih, it was acknowledged that:
the governments, voluntary agencies and media of the Western nations can certainly be faulted for their belated awakening to the crisis in the Horn of Africa, but the Ethiopian government is hardly entitled to scold: it shares much of that responsibility for that failure.[40]
As in the past, the current Ethiopian government is currently “under fire for slow response to worst drought in 50 years”. [41] Ethiopian government spokespersons such as Getachew Reda demonstrate the desire of the government to control the narrative on this current crisis. Reda asserts that the reason that Ethiopia needs support in managing this current crisis is because it is testing the limitations of the country’s preparedness for such an occurrence. [42] Widely criticized for employing “mixed-messages” in their solicitation for help from the international community in this time of crisis, the Ethiopian government is steadfastly trying to maintain the faith of its foreign investors in the nation’s recent unparalleled economic growth as the “Lion of Africa”.[43] Critics within the country argue that “the government is worried about contradicting its own narrative”, which in turn would scare off foreign investors.[44]
Consequently, “starvation isn’t a word that Ethiopian officials want used in relation to their country”, in spite of the fact that there are more than 10,000,000 citizens within the country relying on emergency food aid to live.[45] Arguably, then the Ethiopian government is deliberately trying to control the narrative of this current crisis, in light of what has been characterized as the “psychological hangover” from the previous era of Ethiopian famine relief. [46] As much as the famines of the previous decades have shaped the perceptions of the outside world of Ethiopians, they have left an equally scarring and formative mark on generations of Ethiopians, both within and out of the national boundaries of the nation state. Therefore, the underlying message that some media outlets are trying to push through is that: “this is not 1984, when war and government neglect turned failed rains into famine”.[47] Even though the implicit threat of the unfolding events in the country is equally grim, because “in some areas today’s drought is worse than it was then.”[48]
Ethiopia in 2016, is presumably not the Ethiopia of 1984. In a recent interview with CBC’s Margaret Evans, Canada’s ambassador to Ethiopia Philip Baker supported this claim in his assertion that, the real story of this current drought is the preparedness of the government for this national catastrophe.[49] Hence, this time, the argument for funds for Ethiopia isn’t just to save lives, but rather “to ensure that Ethiopia’s current developmental momentum and its best chance of being able to handle such droughts remains on track.”[50] Over the past two decades, Ethiopia has been revived enough politically and economically to be considered “an island of stability on the continent”, within the purview of the West. [51] An island of stability in what Baker characterizes as a “complicated neighborhood”.[52]
Current Canadian responses
With images of desperation and desolation from the epic famine of 1985-86 still looming vividly within the memories of many Canadians, alarm bells for yet another severe bout, are not yet being met with the urgency and fervor that they once were. Embedded within the mixed-messages for help is the fact that: “Ethiopia is a lot more prepared to deal with drought than 30 years ago.”[53] And more importantly, in order to circumvent the occurrence of a tragedy to the magnitude of that of 1984 -1985, it is important to understand that “famines can be stopped in peace time, if the aid arrives in time”.[54] Therein lies Ethiopia’s greatest challenge ahead. In light of the past year (2015) being a tumultuous year riddled with humanitarian crisis, “the harsh economic truth this time is that Ethiopia is competing for international funds against the likes of war-torn Syria and Yemen, and a migrant crisis”.[55] However, donor fatigue, also bears the weary mark of historical resonance for Ethiopia.
On December 17, 2015, Marie-Claude Bibeau, Minister of International Development and La Francophonie announced the commitment of $30 million in emergency humanitarian assistance funding to be distributed through several partners in response to the food security crisis in Ethiopia.[56] In light of a rapidly deteriorating situation, Canada has pledged the allocation of a bulk of the funds through the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP), $21.5 million dollars, followed by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) at $2.5 million. [57] The remainder of the funds have been pledged to NGO’s such as: CARE Canada ($1.9 million), Concern WorldWide ($1.6 million), World Vision Canada ($1.25 million) and Doctors Without Borders Canada ($1.25 million).[58] Canada was reportedly the 5th largest contributor to Aid in Ethiopia in 2015, a tradition of support purportedly dating back to 1984.[59]
With headlines made by the engagement of ordinary citizens in the abatement of the tragedy unfolding during the 1984 crisis, and the ensuing memorable steps of the federal government in the allocation of those same resources, it is no wonder that 1984 becomes the modern parable for African famine. For within Canadian consciousness, 1984 continues to serve as the last harbinger of hope. A hope that was the impetus to mobilize many across the world into action to effect a positive change. One that was ardently believed to be a permanent change. Hence, history, is indeed extant in the resonance of the current plight. History especially prevails within the rhetoric for aid and within critiques of the Ethiopian government. However, we have yet to witness if history will be equally pervasive in mobilizing a new generation of Canadians into support for Ethiopia, in perhaps an encore of band-aid, the 2.0 version.
This article previously appeared in an edited version on Active History.
Nassisse Solomon is a doctoral student at Western University pursuing a degree in History and Migration and Ethnic Relations. Her dissertation, supervised by Stephanie Bangarth, examines perceptions of Ethiopians and Ethiopia in twentieth-century Canada.
Notes
[1] “Ethiopia government under fire for slow response to worst drought in 50 years”. The Current, April 14, 2016. http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/2686863688[2] “Backgrounder- Canada’s Humanitarian Response To Drought In Ethiopia”. Global Affairs Canada, 2015-12-17. http://www.international.gc.ca/media/dev/news-communiques/2015/12/17a_bg.aspx?lang=eng And Alastair Leithead. “Ethiopia Drought: ‘More Trouble Predicted’”. BBC News. 5 February, 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35499487
[3] “Backgrounder- Canada’s Humanitarian Response To Drought In Ethiopia”. Global Affairs Canada, 2015-12-17. http://www.international.gc.ca/media/dev/news-communiques/2015/12/17a_bg.aspx?lang=eng
[4] “Ethiopia: UN Agency Calls For Urgent Funding For Famers Ahead of Cropping Season”. Un News Centre, 29, April, 2016. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=53822#.VySvk_krIdU
[5] Margaret Evans. “Ethiopia on The Edge”, a segment broadcast for CBC Television’s program “The National”. Aired April 20, 2016. http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/670401603927
[6] Ibid.
[7] Save The Children. “Where We Work: Ethiopia”.http://www.savethechildren.ca/our-work-in-ethiopia
[8] Margaret Evans. “Ethiopia on The Edge”, a segment broadcast for CBC Television’s program “The National”. Aired April 20, 2016. http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/670401603927
[9] James Jeffrey. “Ethiopia Drought: How Can We Let This Happen Again? This Time Around Ethiopia is Competing With war-Torn Syria and Yemen for International Funds.” Aljazeera, 25 January, 2016. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/01/ethiopia-drought-happen-160121084103587.html
[10] Ken MacQueen.”David MacDonald Excited By Challenge in Ethiopia”. Ottawa Citizen, December 11, 1984. David MacDonald Media Clippings File, #219-4, David MacDonald Collection, LAC.
[11] Anonymous Editorial. “Follow The Mulroney Model to alleviate Africa’s famine”. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/editorials/follow-the-mulroney-model-to-alleviate-africas-famine/article589484/
[12] Ibid.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Letter addressed to Ontario Premier David Peterson, from Carol Vaughan of the Guelph African (famine relief) Network. Dated July 14, 1986. Found in file folder for “Relief Organizations and Canadian Assistance”, David Macdonald Collection R12287-229-9 , LAC.
[15] Globe and Mail, Saturday March 23 1985: Entertainment 7. Found in 7.David Macdonald Collection R12287 – 221, Library and Archives Canada.
[16] The Toronto Sun, Monday July 15, 1985. David Macdonald Collection R12287 – 221, Library and Archives Canada.
[17] Letter addressed to Ontario Premier David Peterson, from Carol Vaughan of the Guelph African (famine relief) Network. Dated July 14, 1986. Found in file folder for “Relief Organizations and Canadian Assistance”, David Macdonald Collection R12287-229-9, LAC.
[18] Ken McQueen.” David MacDonald Excited By Challenge in Ethiopia”. Ottawa Citizen, December 11, 1984. David MacDonald Media Clippings File, #219-4, David MacDonald Collection, LAC.
[19] George McIntyre. “Famine in Africa is Still Real”. The Province, found in File Folder: Bowden’s Prints, Feb-April 1986. Volume 219- File 1. David MacDonald Collection, Box # R12287, LAC.
[20] Brian Jefferies. “Dateline Nairobi: African Tragedy”. Maclean’s, August 4, 1980:8.
[21] Ibid.
[22] Mike Crawley. “So Little To Eat: More Than 11 Million Are facing Starvation”. Macleans, March 17, 2003:25.
[23] Elizabeth Kennedy. “Millions Starving in Ethiopia Famine”. The Toronto Star. Friday October 23, 2009. http://www.thestar.com/news/world/2009/10/23/millions_starving_in_ethiopia_famine.html
[24] James Jeffrey. “Ethiopia Drought: How Can We Let This Happen Again? This Time Around Ethiopia is Competing With war-Torn Syria and Yemen for International Funds.” Aljazeera, 25 January, 2016. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/01/ethiopia-drought-happen-160121084103587.html [25] Ibid.
[26] “Famine Report Key: Keep up the good work.” Ottawa Citizen, March 31, 1986. David MacDonald Files. LAC.
[27] Canadian Press.“Act before thousands starve, Geldolf Says of Ethiopia Tour”. The Vancouver Sun, 21 Dec 1987: C5.
[28] Lisa Keller. “Civil Strife Keeps food aid from starving in Ethiopia”. The Vancouver sun, 07 May 1988: A7.
[29] D’Arce McMillan. “Starving Ethiopians Caught in Civil war’s Crossfire”. The Leader-Post, Friday, May 6, 1988: A16. Found in “Ambassador David MacDonald Visit To CAnada- Media Coverage-Clippings, April-May, 1988, 229. David MacDonald Collection, LAC.
[30] Tony Burman’s account of first hand experiences in trying to get the breaking news footage out of the country during the 1984 period speaks to this point poignantly. See Tony Burman. “Ebola: Canada Forgets Its Leadership in Ethiopian Famine”. The Toronto Star, November, 01, 2014. http://www.thestar.com/news/world/2014/11/01/ebola_canada_forgets_its_leadership_in_ethiopian_famine.html [31] James Jeffrey. “Ethiopia Drought: How Can We Let This Happen Again? This Time Around Ethiopia is Competing With war-Torn Syria and Yemen for International Funds.” Aljazeera, 25 January, 2016. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/01/ethiopia-drought-happen-160121084103587.html
[32] Margaret Evans. “Ethiopia on The Edge”, a segment broadcast for CBC Television’s program “The National”. Aired April 20, 2016. http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/670401603927
[33] James Jeffrey. “Ethiopia Drought: How Can We Let This Happen Again? This Time Around Ethiopia is Competing With war-Torn Syria and Yemen for International Funds.” Aljazeera, 25 January, 2016. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/01/ethiopia-drought-happen-160121084103587.html
[34] Ibid.
[35] Alastair Leithead. Ethiopia Drought: ‘More Trouble Predicted’. BBC News. 5 February, 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35499487
[36] Alemayehu G. Mariam. “The Ethiopian Government through Inaction, repression, and obfuscation is a major Cause of Developing Ethiopian Famine”. http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/09/editorials/mariam.htm
[37] Ibid.
[38] “Exploiting The Famine”. The Globe and Mail, December 14, 1984: 6.
[39] Ibid.
[40] Ibid.
[41] “Ethiopia government under fire for slow response to worst drought in 50 years”. The Current, April 14, 2016. http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/2686863688
[42] Alastair Leithead. Ethiopia Drought: ‘More Trouble Predicted’. BBC News. 5 February, 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35499487
[43] Margaret Evans. “Ethiopia on The Edge”, a segment broadcast for CBC Television’s program “The National”. Aired April 20, 2016. http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/670401603927
[44]Ibid.
[45] Ibid.
[46] Journalist Margaret Evans uses this term during her discussion with Anna Maria Tremonte during an interview on: The Current. “Ethiopia government under fire for slow response to worst drought in 50 years”. http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/2686863688
[47] Alastair Leithead. Ethiopia Drought: ‘More Trouble Predicted’. BBC News. 5 February, 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35499487
[48] Ibid.
[49] Margaret Evans. “Ethiopia on The Edge”, a segment broadcast for CBC Television’s program “The National”. Aired April 20, 2016. http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/670401603927
[50] James Jeffrey. “Ethiopia Drought: How Can We Let This Happen Again? This Time Around Ethiopia is Competing With war-Torn Syria and Yemen for International Funds.” Aljazeera, 25 January, 2016. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/01/ethiopia-drought-happen-160121084103587.html
[51] Margaret Evans. “Ethiopia on The Edge”, a segment broadcast for CBC Television’s program “The National”. Aired April 20, 2016. http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/670401603927
[52]Ibid.
[53] Alastair Leithead. Ethiopia Drought: ‘More Trouble Predicted’. BBC News. 5 February, 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35499487
[54] Alastair Leithead. Ethiopia Drought: ‘More Trouble Predicted’. BBC News. 5 February, 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35499487
[55] James Jeffrey. “Ethiopia Drought: How Can We Let This Happen Again? This Time Around Ethiopia is Competing With war-Torn Syria and Yemen for International Funds.” Aljazeera, 25 January, 2016. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/01/ethiopia-drought-happen-160121084103587.html
[56] “Backgrounder- Canada’s Humanitarian Response To Drought In Ethiopia”. Global Affairs Canada, 2015-12-17. http://www.international.gc.ca/media/dev/news-communiques/2015/12/17a_bg.aspx?lang=eng
[57] Ibid.
[58] Ibid.
[59] Margaret Evans. “Ethiopia on The Edge”, a segment broadcast for CBC Television’s program “The National”. Aired April 20, 2016. http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/670401603927
